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In this chapter we reflect on different pathways leading to collaborative forms of public service delivery between citizens and governments: bottom-up and top-down. Bottom-up pathways are initiated and for an important part led by groups of citizens, while top-down pathways are initiated and led by government institutions. Both types can be characterized by certain potentials and pitfalls. In the growing literature on collaborative forms of service delivery it is important to take notice of these different, bottom-up and top-down pathways as they are characterized by different dynamics leading to specific challenges in implementation and assessment. Based on various literature on citizen participation, co-production and community based initiatives, key participation traps are discussed. We are going deeper into the why (motives), how (crucial capacities) and who (representativeness) question of bottom-up and top-down participatory efforts.

__Abstract__ The policy- and decision-making context has changed significantly in the last decades. In the contemporary age of late modernity, the classical modernistic institutions of policyand decision making are increasingly facing difficulties in realizing legitimate and effective political responses by themselves (Beck et al., 2003; Dryzek, 1990; Hajer, 2003a). A number of transformations in contemporary societies can be identified as important factors in this diagnosis. Without having the ambition to be all-encompassing, one could at least mention two major changes of particular interest for this thesis. One major change concerns the increasing complexity of public issues accompanied by a highly fragmented institutional landscape. The second concerns a changing societal context in which traditional political authority is increasingly questioned and citizens often demand more direct forms of political engagement when their interests are at stake. These changes and their implications for traditional government are further elaborated in the next sections of this introductory chapter.

This study explores the growing interest of governments in co-production and self-organisation by examining the framing of roles and responsibilities of citizens and professionals in care reforms. As in many other western countries, the Dutch welfare state is subject to major reforms, shifting responsibilities back towards society. A qualitative content analysis of policy letters of the Dutch national government shows that newer roles (citizen-as-co-producers) do not substitute traditional roles (citizen-as-clients), but constitute a new layer resulting in an expansion and diversification of roles for regular providers. Activating, supporting and partnering with citizens are framed as new competences of professionals.

__Abstract__ Previous research has extensively analyzed the role, and indicated the importance, of network management for the functioning and performance of public or governance networks. In this article, we focus on the influence of boundary spanning actors in such networks-an aspect less examined in the governance network literature. Boundary spanners are considered to be important for governance network performance. Building on the literature, we expect a mediating role of trust in this relationship. To empirically test these relationships, we conducted survey research (N = 141) among project managers involved in urban governance networks: networks around complex urban projects that include the organizations involved in the governance process (the formulation of policies, decision making, and implementation) in these complex projects. We found a strong positive relationship between the presence of boundary spanners and trust and governance network performance. The results indicate a partially mediating role of trust in this relationship. Furthermore, we found that these boundary spanners originated mainly from private and societal organizations, and less from governmental organizations.

__Abstract__ Although theoretical and empirical work on the democratic legitimacy of governance networks is growing, little attention has been paid to the impact of mediatisation on democracies. Media have their own logic of news-making led by the media's rules, aims, production routines and constraints, which affect political decision-making processes. In this article, we specifically study how media and their logic affect three democratic legitimacy sources of political decision-making within governance networks: voice, due deliberation and accountability. We conducted a comparative case study of three local governance networks using a mixed method design, combining extensive qualitative case studies, interviews and a quantitative content analysis of media reports. In all three cases, media logic increased voice possibilities for citizen groups. Furthermore, it broadened the deliberation process, although this did not improve the quality of this process per se, because the media focus on drama and negativity. Finally, media logic often pushed political authorities into a reactive communication style as they had to fight against negative images in the media. Proactive communication about projects, such as public relation (PR) strategies and branding, is difficult in such a media landscape.

__Abstract__ In the Netherlands, citizens have the formal opportunity to put issues – under certain conditions – on the political agenda. This has been possible since May 2006 at the national level and at the local level since March 2002. In addition, people increasingly engage in an informal way, on their own initiative, to draw from their expertise, experience and knowledge to formulate ideas for policy that they may offer to government. Such 'citizens' initiatives' can be seen, in addition to interactive policy making, as a form of citizens' participation (Edelenbos et al. 2008). Citizen participation is often initiated by government; it is a bottom-up development started by citizens themselves (Edelenbos et al. 2008). In this chapter, we elaborate on the institutional implications of the 'citizens' initiatives' within local democracy. These initiatives could be described as forms of selfgovernance, leading to the emergence of 'proto-institutions' (Lawrence et al. 2002). These proto-institutions interact with established institutions of representative democracy. This interaction is a co-evolving process in which both types of institutions react to each other in certain ways. In this contribution, we describe this institutional evolution and try to find determining factors in this process. We want to provide explanatory factors of processes of institutional co-evolution. We argue that these factors are of major importance with regard to processes of citizen participation and co-operating mechanisms between proto-institutions developed by citizens' initiatives and established institutions of representative democracy.

Naast opdrachtgever van zelfstandige bestuursorganen zijn ministeries ook eigenaar van zbo's, in juridisch en/of economisch opzicht. Deze eigenaarrol is tot nu toe onderbelicht gebleven, zowel in de theorievorming over de relatie tussen ministeries en zbo's als in de praktijk waar politiekbestuurlijke aspecten en budgettaire taakstellingen de aandacht voor de continuïteit en kwaliteit van de bedrijfsvoering van zbo's verdringen. Dit kan bedrijfseconomische risico's tot gevolg hebben. Oplossing kan worden gezocht in het expliciet belleggen en vervullen van de eigenaarfunctie. Dit draagt bij aan de continuïteit en het bedrijfsmatig werken van zbo's, het inzicht in de prestaties van zbo's en een betere relatie tussen ministeries en zbo's. Daarnaast zouden bestaande theoretische modellen over de relatie tussen ministeries en zbo's uitgebreid moeten worden om de eigenaarrol beter te kunnen beschrijven.

Despite the growing attention given to community-based initiatives in the delivery of public services, little is known about their durability. This article focuses on Dutch community enterprises (CEs) as an emerging form of community-based initiatives in urban regeneration. Due to their self-organizing and (largely) voluntary character, CEs face considerable governance challenges to sustain activities over time. Based on the literature, we examine the interplay of four key conditions in relation to their durability: social capital, entrepreneurial community leadership, supportive relationships with institutional key players and a strong business model. Based on an fsQCA of 12 cases, the main conclusion is that the presence of social capital, strong entrepreneurial leadership and a strong business model is the most important configuration leading to a durable CE. Government support is not found to be a necessary or sufficient condition, but its absence is part of the explanation of nondurability.

Increasingly, Western local governments are dealing with community-based initiatives (CBIs) of citizens providing public services. Municipalities possess critical resources CBIs generally lack, including subsidies, buildings, and exposure. There is still little knowledge on CBIs' factors for government support. Therefore, this study adopts an organizational perspective distinguishing among institutionalization (intraorganizational, e.g., organizational size and democratic legitimacy) and interaction (interorganizational, e.g., boundary spanning leadership [BSL]) factors for the support CBIs obtain from local government. Analyzing large N data (N = 2331) from CBIs in six countries by using structural equation modeling, we found that interaction factors are related to more government support, whereas institutionalization factors are less significant. More specifically, we found stronger relationships for BSL and linking social capital than for the factors related to the formalization and development of organizational infrastructure, including the much-discussed democratic legitimacy of CBIs, suggesting a limited interest of governments in this topic as a factor for support.

There are high political and policy expectations of local and voluntary initiatives of citizens collaborating to provide public services themselves. Despite rising attention, existing research lacks systematic knowledge on the actual outcomes of citizen initiatives and on stimulating or hampering factors. Therefore, we present a systematic literature review using the PRISMA approach on citizen initiatives and related terms. The studies show citizens being able to achieve outcomes touching upon a broad range of public values. Furthermore, the review presents contributing factors, like government support and boundary spanning leadership. Yet, the field of citizen initiatives in the social sciences can benefit from more methodological and analytical rigor. We therefore conclude with a conceptual framework for community self-management that identifies relationships between outcomes and relevant factors and discuss future research directions.

Community-based initiatives (CBIs) are thriving in Western countries. In CBIs, citizens take a leading role in providing public services and goods. CBIs have been acclaimed for their innovativeness, problem-solving capacity, and legitimacy. However, we lack large N studies on performance of CBIs and its antecedents. This article develops and tests a model that identifies relationships between performance and four antecedents by using survey data on CBIs collected in the Netherlands (N = 671). Using structural equation modelling, positive direct and indirect relationships between transformational leadership, boundary spanning leadership, organizational capacity, social capital ties, government support, and performance are found.

This article deals with the evolution of community self-organization in public administration. Within the literature of interactive governance, increasing attention is being paid to how communities take initiative in dealing with societal issues. However, we know little about the factors contributing to the durability of self-organization. We analyzed three cases of community self-organization in three different countries: the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Netherlands. We found that community self-organization initiatives are strongly embedded in governmental environments, leading to different modes of interaction that change from phase to phase and in response to reciptiveness (or the lack thereof) among government counterparts. These modes of interaction strongly influence the evolution of community self-organization efforts. Moreover, we conclude that it is important that self-organized citizen initiatives represent and capture the perspectives and interests of large groups of citizens. This condition positively influences the evolution and duration of citizen initiatives. Those who manage to link with other citizens, including via community and volunteer organizations, can succeed. Those who do not can lose their legitimacy and fail.

Urban regeneration processes in which local stakeholders take the lead are interesting for realizing tailor made and sustainable urban regeneration, but are also faced with serious difficulties. We use the concept of self-organization from complexity theory to examine the relationship between local stakeholders' initiatives and vital urban regeneration processes. We conducted a two-case comparative research, Caterham Barracks and Broad Street Business Improvement Districts Birmingham (UK), in which local stakeholders take the lead. We analyse the evolution of these regeneration processes by using two different manifestations of self-organization: autopoietic and dissipative self-organization. We found that a balanced interplay between autopoietic and dissipative self-organization of local stakeholders is important for vital urban regeneration processes to establish. We elaborate four explanatory conditions for this interplay. These conditions provide at the one hand stability and identity development, but also the needed connections with established actors and institutions around urban regeneration and flexibility to adjust to evolving demands during the process of regeneration. However, consolidation of such initiatives does mean a challenge for existing structures for the government, market and society that will need to adapt and change their roles to new governance realities. In this way self-organizing processes become meaningful in the regeneration of urban areas.

Network management is of major importance for the functioning and the performance of governance networks, including their democratic legitimacy (see for example Koppenjan and Klijn, 2004; Edelenbos & Klijn, 2006; Klijn et al., 2010; Meier & O'Toole, 2001, 2007). Network management is especially focused on organizing connections between different actors in different spheres, political, governmental and societal (Edelenbos et al, 2011). However, empirical insights in water governance network about the relationship between a connective style of network management and legitimacy is lacking. In this chapter we will investigate this relationship by elaborating connective management style through the concept of complexity sensitive management, and its effect on different kinds of legitimacy. Data is gathered through survey research (N=272), which was conducted in 2010 among respondents involved in water projects in the Netherlands. These water projects are developed in complex governance networks, because they touch on the interests of a variety of public and non-public actors and their realization is dependent on these same actors (e.g. Koppenjan and Klijn, 2004; Sabatier et al, 2005; Lubell and Lippert, 2011; Edelenbos and Teisman, 2011). Throughout the chapter we will illustrate the survey results with qualitative case material. These cases were also part of the survey. This case material is collected by interviews and document analysis and is part of a study on water governance in The Netherlands (see Van Buuren et al, 2010).

Community-based initiatives (CBIs) are emerging in many domains such as care, sustainable energy and water management. This paper examined three initiatives in Dutch water management, focusing on their relationship with water boards. CBIs present issues that water boards find difficult to respond to because of two reasons. First, CBIs are demarcated very differently from the formal tasks that water boards pursue. This calls for internal alignment within water boards to respond adequately. Second, CBIs necessitate external alignment with other water-managing governments. Water boards must therefore implement double helix alignment to relate productively to initiatives emerging in society.